Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport

Report 2025/1

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport - pre-feasibility study

Haakon Vennemo, Sarah Eidsmo, Leif Grandum, Magnus Digre Nord og Herman Ringdal

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport - pre-feasibility study

Category	Reports
Sub-Categories	Statistics and Empirical Analysis Power and energy Transport
Year	2025
Report Number	1
Author(s)	Haakon Vennemo Sarah Eidsmo Leif Grandum Magnus Digre Nord Herman Ringdal
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Report 2025/01	 | 	For 	Satu Mare In	tercommunity Development Association	 	
 	
 	
 	
Renewable energy solutions for 	Satu Mare International Air-	
port	 	
Pre	-feasibility study	 	
Haakon Vennemo, Sarah 	Eidsmo, Leif Grandum, Magnus Digre Nord and Herman Ringdal

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport	 	
 
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D	ocument details	 	
Title	 	Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport 	– pre-feasibility study	 	
Report Number	 	2025/01	 	
Author	 	Haakon Vennemo, 	Sarah Eidsmo, Leif Grandum, Magnus Digre Nord, Herman Ringdal	 	
ISBN	 	978	-82	-8126	-712	-1 	
Project Number	 	24	-HVE	-04	 	
Project Leader 	 	Haakon Vennemo	 	
Commissioned by 	 	Satu Mare 	County Intercommunity Development Association	 	
Date of completion 	 	January 10	th, 2025	 	
Source front page photo 	 	Vecteezy	 and 	Chelse	adeeyo 	on Un	splash 	 	
Availability 	 	Public	 	
Keywords	 	Empirical analysis, 	electricity and energy, transport	 	
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
About us	 	
Vista Analyse is a social science 	consultancy whose emphasis is economic research, policy analysis and advice, and 	
evaluations. We carry out projects to the highest professional standards, with independence and integrity. Our key 
thematic areas include climate change, energy, transport, ur	ban planning and welfare issues.	 	
Our employees have high academic credentials and broad experience in consulting. When needed, we utilise an 
extensive network of companies and resource persons both nationally and internationally. The company is fully em-
ployee owned.

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Preface	 	
The pre	-feasibility study 	on renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Ai	rport is 	carried out by Vista 	
Analyse	 in the period 	July 2024 	– January 2025. 	It is an output from a collaboration project by the same name 	be-	
tween Vista Analyse and	 The Satu Mare Intercommunity Development Association	. 	
Financial support is provided by the 	EEA Grants	. The EEA grants represent the contribution of the states of Iceland, 	
Liechtenstein and Norway to a greener, more competitive and more inclusive Europe. There are two major objectives: 
reducing economic and social disparities in Europe and strengthening bila	teral relations between donor states and 	
the 15 EU states in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans. The 3 donor states cooperate closely with the EU 
within the framework of the Agreement on the European	 Economic Area. Donor states provided 3.3 billion Euros 	
through grant schemes between 1994 and 2014. For the period 2014	-2021, EEA Grants have a value of 1.55 billion 	
Euros. More information on EEA Grants: 	www.eeagrants.ro	. Innovation Norway manages the EEA Grants	 in 	Romania. 	 	
We would like to thank the Satu Mare Intercommunity Development Association	 and its 	Managing Director Nicoleta 	
Lasan for 	support and 	encouragement 	in the pre	-feasibility study. Further we would like to thank the	 administration 	
at 	Satu Mare 	International Airport and its Manag	ing Director Mihai 	Pătra	şcu	 for 	support	 and encouragement. 	Finally	, 	
our thanks go out to 	representatives of 	suppliers of	 solar energy and battery solutions in Satu Mare, 	and represent-	
atives of 	local authorities	, who have patiently 	answered questions	 and 	provided detailed information	 of 	great value 	
for the study. 	 	
 
January 10	th, 2025	 	
Haakon Vennemo	 	
Professor, partner	 	
Vista Analyse AS

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Contents	 	
Executive summary	 ................................	................................	................................	................................	.......................	 7 	
1 	Background and scope	 ................................	................................	................................	................................	........	 11	 	
1.1	 	Transport in Satu Mare	 	11	 	
1.2	 	Satu Mare International Airport	 	12	 	
1.3	 	Political context	 	14	 	
1.4	 	Potential renewable energy sources and energy 	efficiency measures	 	16	 	
2 	Airport activity and energy consumption	 ................................	................................	................................	...........	 17	 	
2.1	 	Energy consumption at Satu Mare International Airport	 	17	 	
2.2	 	Expected activity and electricity consumption at the airport	 	19	 	
3 	Key pre	-conditions for solar energy production	 ................................	................................	................................	. 22	 	
3.1	 	Regulations	 	22	 	
3.2	 	Resource potential	 	23	 	
3.3	 	Economic aspects	 	24	 	
3.4	 	Social and environmental aspects	 	26	 	
4 	Business case	 ................................	................................	................................	................................	......................	 28	 	
4.1	 	Investment and maintenance	 	28	 	
4.2	 	Revenue	 	29	 	
4.3	 	Net present value (NPV)	 	30	 	
4.4	 	Sensitivity analysis	 	31	 	
5 	Next steps	 ................................	................................	................................	................................	...........................	 34	 	
References	 ................................	................................	................................	................................	................................	.. 35	 	
Appendices	 ................................	................................	................................	................................	................................	. 37	 	
A 	Estimated energy consumption	 	37	 	 
Figur	e 	
Figure S.1	 	Monthly average power generation with 400 kWp system at Satu Mare Airport. Estimate.	 ...........	 8 	
Figure 1.1	 	Total number of passengers on commercial flights	 ................................	................................	........	 13	 	
Figure 1.2	 	Electricity generation sources, Romania, 2022	 ................................	................................	...............	 15	 	
Figure 2.1	 	Electricity consumption at Satu Mare International Airport 2019	-2023	................................	.........	 17	 	
Figure 2.2	 	Average monthly electricity consumption, 2019	-2023	 ................................	................................	... 18	 	
Figure 2.3	 	Average hourly electricity consumption, November and December 2023	 ................................	.....	 19	 	
Figure 2.4	 	Estimated yearly electricity consumption at Satu Mare International Airport	 ...............................	 21	 	
Figure 3.1	 	Monthly average power generation with 400 kWp system.	 ................................	...........................	 23	 	
Figure 3.2	 	Average hourly power generation with 400 kWp system.	 ................................	..............................	 24	 	 
Tab	le 	
Table 2.1	 	Expected number of passengers and flight movements	 ................................	................................	. 20	 	
Table 3.1	 	Capital expenditure	 ................................	................................	................................	........................	 25	 	
Table 3.2	 	Operational expenses	 ................................	................................	................................	.....................	 26	 	
Table 4.1	 	Investment options	 ................................	................................	................................	.........................	 28

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Table 4.2	 	Investment cost (CAPEX)	 ................................	................................	................................	.................	 28	 	
Table 4.3	 	Annual maintenance cost (OPEX)	 ................................	................................	................................	... 29	 	
Table 4.4	 	Annual revenue	................................	................................	................................	...............................	 29	 	
Table 4.5	 	Annual revenue and net present value	 ................................	................................	...........................	 30	 	
Table 4.6	 	Net present value from batteries in isolation	 ................................	................................	.................	 31	 	
Table 4.7	 	Electricity price sensitivity, Provider A	 ................................	................................	............................	 32	 	
Table 4.8	 	Electricity price sensitivity, Provider B	 ................................	................................	............................	 32	 	
Table A.1	 	Estimated monthly energy consumption (MWh)	 ................................	................................	...........	 37

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Executive	 summary	 	
Satu Mare International Airport is 	considering renewable 	energy 	solutions	 for its	 renovation and 	
expansion. 	Considering 	the resource potential, as well as the economic and regulatory environ-	
ment	, this 	study 	considers solar energy 	to be 	the most 	promising energy solu	tion. We 	analyse	 	
the business case for a 400 	kW	p solar electricity system in combination with 	batteries of different 	
capacities. At current electricity prices 	a system without batteries 	gives the best net present 	
value. 	At 40	-100	% higher electricity prices 	or 	35	-65	% lower battery prices	 systems with batteries 	
are equally or more profitable in terms of net present value	. 	
Solar 	electricity is the b	est renew	able energy solution for Satu 	
Mare Airport	 	
Satu Mare International Airport 	opened in 1936 and is an important regional airport in 	North	-	
West Romania. 	The 	airport is currently undergoing renovation and extens	ion. 	A new terminal 	
building is added	, and the old terminal	 building is 	remodeled	 with 	up	-to-date energy solutions 	
and other improvements. 	 	
The airport is interested i	n using renewable energy to 	cover its 	electricity	 demand. In 	a recent 	
scoping study	 Vista Analyse (2023) found that solar energy has the best potential	 in Satu Mare. 	
In 	this 	pre	-feasibility	 study	, we confirm 	the conclusion. W	ind electricity is n	ot a good alternative 	
both beca	use of 	wind conditions and because it is problematic 	to 	operate	 wind turbines close to 	
the airport. 	There is no know	n source of geothermal heat that is suitable for power 	generation	 at 	
the airport and no resources for hydropower.	 	
This leaves solar 	energy, 	in terms of	 solar heating and 	solar electricity (	photovoltaic 	(PV)	 panels	). 	
The airport already has solar heating installed on the roof and a water	-based distribution of heat 	
around the building. 	Hence, the study 	focuses on solar 	electricity, PV panels, in combination with 	
batteries of different 	capacities. 	 	
The regulatory environment is 	positive	, and	 the resource poten-	
tial is	 good	 	
In Romania, the 	regulations	 and laws regarding renewable energy production differ depending 	
on whether you are a prosumer or not, 	and	 the production capacity of the installation. 	Satu Mare 	
Airport qualifies as a prosumer. 	 	
Prosumers that have a	n installation with a	 maximum effect of 400 	kilowatts	 are treated according 	
to procedures given in ANRE Order nr. 19/2022.	 This order states that p	rosumers 	who	 own a 	
renewable energy installation with a maximum effect of 400 k	ilowatts	 can commercialise the 	
electricity produced without the need for registration and authorisation of their operation.	 For 	
prosumers with a maximum capacity between 200 and 400 kilowatts, the 	financial regulation 	
mechanism	 applies. 	Electricity suppliers that e	nter contract with these prosumers are obligated 	
to buy the electricity that is produced and delivered to the grid	.

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The 	resource 	potential	 for 	solar electricity production is	 limited by 	the available area	 and the solar 	
efficiency of that area	. 	
The airport has an area of approximately 52	 000 square meters at ground level available for in-	
stalling solar PV panels. 	That is more than sufficient for installing a 400 kWp system. 	The ground 	
level area is flat with pastures and well suited for hosting PV panels. The surrounding area is also 
flat and there are no major obstacles that could block the sun. 	 	
To assess the solar irradiation at the airport, we use the simulation software PVGIS tool from the 
European Commission. 	PVGIS	 uses satellite data to simulate solar radiation at a given coordinate. 	
The monthly 	average power generation from a 400 kWp system 	at the Satu Mare 	Airport is shown 	
in 	Figure 	S.1 below. 	 	
Figure 	S.1 	Monthly average power generation with 400 kWp system	 at Satu Mare Air-	
port	. Estimate.	 	
 	
 	
Source:	 	PVGIS	 	
Delivered power from the PV panels will be lower than the power produced by the PV cells due 
to loss in 	cables, inverters and dust or snow covering the modules. The modules will also lose 	
efficiency over time. We assume a total system loss of 14%, which is the standard assumption by 
PVGIS.	 	
A solar electricity installation 	has high net present value	 	
According to 	key sup	plier	s in Satu Mare	 solar panels 	can be provided for an investment cost of 	
650	-1000 euros per kWp, VAT excluded. This includes all the labor needed to install the modules, 	
the necessary documentation, the structure the panels are mounted on, photovoltaic cables (DC), 
power cables (AC), the panels (AC and DC), inverters, measuring and	 monitoring equipment 	
(LOGGER), perimeter fencing, and warranties. The panels are expected to produce upwards of 
99 % initial capacity in the first year, bef	ore efficiency decreases 0.4% each year throughout their 	
16	
26	
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52	52	
57	56	59	
46	
37	
23	
16	
0
10
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30
40
50
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70	
jan	feb	mar	apr	may	jun	jul	aug	sep	oct	nov	dec	
MWh

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30	-year lifespan. During this period production should stay above 85% of initial capacity with an-	
nual maintenance. 	 	
The revenue associated with installing photovoltaic panels comes from a combination of reduced 
electricity costs 	on the one hand 	and income 	from	 selling surplus electricity to the grid	 on the 	
other	. As of January 2025, the Romanian government has enforced caps on electricity prices to 	
help manage the rising energy costs. According to 	Article 1	 in 	Emergency Ordinance No. 	
192/2022, 	which has been extended to March 31	st, 2025, the price for non	-household consumers 	
is 0.26 euros per kWh including VAT. 	 	
In the hours the panels produce more than 	the airport	 consume	s, the airport can sell this elec-	
tricity to the grid	 at a current price of 0.26 euros per kWh	. In normal circumstances, the price 	
received for selling electricity to the grid is calculated as the weighted average day	-ahead market 	
price for the month in which the electricity was generated	. However, the grid operator in Satu 	
Mare informs that at this point there will be at constant price of 0.06 euros per kWh.	 	
Based on these assumptions, a	nd using a real discount rate of 10	% we calculate 	the	 net present 	
value of a 	400 	kWp solar 	PV installation to be about 	465 000 	– 63	0 000	 euros	. Hence, the PV	 	
installation is clearly profitable. 	Prices exclusive of VAT is used in the calculation as it is assume	d 	
that the airport can reclaim VAT paid. 	 	
Besides the financial net present value	, the installation will 	contribute to 	lower CO	2-emissions	 and	 	
lower emissions of N	Ox and 	particulate matter	. Emissions of particulate matter	, in particular the	 	
small particles	 (PM	2.5) is a serious health problem in Romania	 and 	Europe	. 	
At current prices	, batteries are not	 profitable	 	
Adding batteries to the solar PV installation will allow the 	airport to 	store 	surplus 	electricity in-	
stead of 	selling	 it to the grid	. Later	, it can use the stored electricity instead of purchasing from the 	
grid. 	This 	generates an annual profit	 If the price of pur	chased electricity is higher than the price 	
of sold electricity	. To determine the net present value of batteries th	e annual profit must be 	com-	
pared to the	 investment cost. 	 	
A battery	 of 	193.5 kW	 is available 	in Satu Mare 	at 	an investment cost of 	66	 000 	- 90	 000 	euro	s 	
excl VAT, everything included. Ann	ual op	erational costs are given as 	33	0 - 2 000 euro. 	 	
Combining 	the 	information	, we find that 	installing 	one battery 	returns a 	net present value of 	mi-	
nus 	30	 000 	– minus 	70	 000. 	Installing a battery with the installation is therefore not profitable at 	
current prices. 	To put it differently	 a battery 	reduces	 the positive n	et present value of 	the 	solar 	
PV installation. 	A second battery 	will 	be 	even 	less profitable than the first, 	because	 there may be 	
sufficient 	solar power	 to fill the first battery, but not the second. 	Therefore,	 capacity utilization 	
of the 	second	 battery 	will be lower. 	 	
Batteries are profitable 	at a higher price differential and/or a	 	
lower 	battery cost	 	
As noted, the annual profit 	from a battery 	depends on the price differential between 	the price of 	
electricity 	purchased 	and the price of 	electricity sold. 	We estimate that if 	the price of purchased 	
electricity increases 	40	-100	%, an investment in 	the first battery 	is profitable	, other things equal.

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A rise	 in the price differential	 increases the annual profit of a battery. 	An alternative 	way to turn 	
an 	overall profit is to lower the cost. If the 	cost	 of a battery 	decreases 	35	-65	%, the investment in 	
a battery 	is profitable	, other things equal	. 	
The next step is t	o detail the project	 	
Since this 	pre	-feasibility study indicates that a 400 kWp PV installation at Satu Mare Airport is 	
robustly profitable, 	the next step would be to detail the project. When detailing the project	, a 	
preliminary step 	is to 	compare 	the estimated incomes and costs in this report to 	data from a 	
nearby, existing PV installation, of which there is at least one. Given that the 	project is 	profitable 	
considering	 additional information, the next 	step would be to 	detail the project according to the 	
requirements of relevan	t financial institutions and relevant authorities. 	 	
As a further step the current 400 kWp capacity might be reconsidered. Since a 	400 kWp capacity 	
unit is robustly profitable a somewhat larger installation probably is profitable as well. 	The regu-	
latory process is more complicated, 	for instance with respect 	connection to 	the electricity grid, 	
but 	it might be worthwhile 	conducting	 the necessary analysis. 	Additional 	electricity production 	
could for instance be used to 	modernize the administrative building of the airport, which so far is 	
excluded from the 	project.

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1	 	Background and scope	 	
Our a	im with this report is to 	examine the potential for 	production of 	ren	ewable	 energy at Satu 	
Mare International Airport in 	Romania. 	Along with 	assessing resource potentia	l, regulatory 	frame-	
work	 and economic aspects	, this comes with 	mapping the current and future energy 	consumption 	
and	 review	ing	 the 	alternative	 energy 	sources	. The rep	ort is meant to 	produce realistic estimates 	
on the financing and profitability of 	ren	ewable energy production	 at the airport	. 	
This ch	apter sets the stage by 	contextualizing the 	airport	 as an investment project	, discussing 	
transport 	infrastructure in Romania	 and 	the political 	aspects of energy	 consumption	. Chapter 2 	
presents	 the 	predicted airport activity and discusses	 current and future energy consumption. 	 	
Chapter 3 	illuminates the conditions and constraints regarding 	renewable	 energy	 production	 at 	
the airport, in 	both 	a physical and regulatory sense,	 with	 the	ir associated 	economic aspects	. 	
Based on 	chapter 	1-3 we develop a business case 	in chapter 	4 with three 	scenarios	 for 	renewable 	
energy production at Satu Mare International Airport	. 	
1.1	 	Transport 	in Satu Mare	 	
The county of Satu Mare is located 	in the North	-West Development Region of 	Romania	. The 	
county has 330,000 inhabitants, of which 90,000 live in the county capital, Satu Mare. 	Its	 area 	
stretches across 	44	18 km	2, which makes 	up	 roughly 2% of Roma	nia’	s entire 	land area. 	 	
Satu Mare 	borders the counties 	of 	Bihor, Salaj and Maramure	 from 	south	 to east	, and	 the 	coun-	
tries of 	Ukraine 	and Hungary 	to the north	 and	 west.	 This makes the county subject to 	issues of 	
international 	as well as regional transport	. As the	 co	nstraints of the covid	-pandemic 	are	 thor-	
oughly lifted	, the pressure	 is back	 on transport	 and transport	 infrastructure as 	prerequisite	s for 	
economic growth.	 	
In recent years	 regional transport infrastructure has been an area of active investment 	in Satu 	
Mar	e, especially with 	regard	 to the ro	ad network.	 Infrastructural	 investments are 	still 	necessary 	
to increas	e traffic safety	 and efficiency	, and 	ensure sufficient	 emergency service	 deliverance	, in 	
the county and 	in 	Romania as a whole	 (Satu Mare County, 2022)	. The 	General 	Transport Master 	
Plan of Romania	 state	d in 2015 	that 	motorway	s and 	the 	national road network	 ma	de up 	only 	20% 	
of the en	tire network	 (Aecom, 2015)	. Additionally, 	about 50%	 of the	 conditions on	 national 	roads 	
were 	categorized as either average or poor	. For this and other reasons, there are several 	ongoing	 	
and 	planned	 rehabilitation	- and expansion 	projects 	regarding 	the road network in Satu Mare and 	
Romania, 	which 	point out the existence of 	challenges related to 	transport infrastructure.	 	
An	 insufficient road network also emphasizes the	 importance of 	other means of	 transport	ation	, 	
e.g. air transport. 	By quickly and safely accommodating the mobility needs of people and busi-	
nesses	, air transport 	substitutes for	 long	 time	-consuming	 domestic and 	international 	routes by 	
road or railway, while simultaneously 	contributing to 	the econom	y. 	As an industry	, air transport	 	
contribute	d 4.2 billion 	dollars	, about 1.67%	, to the	 Romanian 	GDP	 in 2019	 (Air Transport Action 	
Group, 2020)	. To 	ensure	 that 	air transport 	supports and stimulates economic growth	, transport 	
infrastructure 	proves vital.	 For 	the 	county of 	Satu Mare this means	 that 	the	 internati	onal airport 	
must 	maintain modern 	standards	 in terms of 	safety, efficiency and technology. 	As the connection

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to 	motorways and 	national	 road netw	orks is poor, the airport plays a pivotal role in	 shortening 	
travel time, increasing 	mobility	, enabling business opportunities and facilitating tourism	. 	
Considering	 this, 	Satu Mare International Airport has been subject to 	several investment projects 	
over	 the last ten years.	 Due to r	ecent economic and social 	progress	 in 	Romania’s	 North	-West 	
Development Region	, the 	airport’s significance 	is 	growing, and the 	demand for air transport is 	
increasing 	(Satu Mare International Airport, 2023)	. Its location	 contributes 	to conne	cting t	he 	
northwestern	 region	 to the 	rest of	 the country	 and	 the 	continent,	 with r	egular flights to Bucharest	 	
and London	, and seasonal flights to Antalya.	 Despite this and	 recent years	’ efforts	 to 	increase	 the	 	
number of destinations and departure	s, airlines 	have been drawn to	 other state 	funded	 compet-	
ing airports	. Potentially,	 this will change shortly, as	 EU funds 	and the	 Satu Mare	 county council 	
ha	ve	 enabled	 the construction o	f a new and modern 	terminal building	. The new terminal wil	l not 	
only	 increase	 capacity and	 traveller	- and flight efficiency	. It will also improve 	energy efficiency	 	
and 	possibly	 produce energy of its own	. Energy efficiency, energy production and energy con-	
sumption of the 	airport 	is the	 focus of this report. 	 	
1.2	 	Satu Mare International Airport	 	
Satu Mare International Airport	 is located 	14 km south of the 	Satu Mare city	 centre	. It was opened 	
in 1936 and	 was 	inaugurated with its current runway in 1975. 	It is one of 	the	 oldest	 accred	ited 	
airports	 in Romania and 	plays 	an important	 role in 	transport infra	structure and 	business 	in the 	
county. 	It is autonomously run	 as a legal 	organization	 with its own 	board and	 business	 admin-	
istration, but 	the county council is the owner	 of the airport. 	 	
1.2.1	 	Investments and modernization	 	
In recent years t	he a	irport has 	been the object of	 severa	l investment projects	. The 	first 	one	, “Re-	
hab	ilitation and 	modern	ization of movement surfaces and expansion o	f terminal	 at Satu Mare 	
Airport	”, 	commenc	ed	 in 2015. 	Upon the project's completion	, passenger t	raffic	 responded im-	
mediately	, increasing	 155% from 2016 to 2017	 (Satu 	Mare County, 2022)	. This 	growth	 continued 	
and peaked	 in 2019	 at 	85	 171 	passengers and 	2 390 	flight	 move	ments. 	 	
The a	irport activity 	in Satu Mare 	was deeply 	affected by the ensuin	g pandemic and its	 restrictions 	
on 	travel	, reducing 	the number of passengers 	by 	70% in 2020	 (Satu Mare International Airport, 	
2023)	. As 	the restrictions are	 now	 long gone	, air traffic has	 again	 accelerated	, and 	the airpor	t 	
experiences 	better	 capacity	 utilization.

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Figure 	1.1 	Total number of passengers on commercial flights	 	
 	
Source:	 	Satu Mare International Airport 	 	
In 20	22 the county council of Satu Mare 	signed 	a contract with 	the Romanian Ministry of 	
Transport	, se	curing 431.9 million 	RON	 for a	 new	 modernization 	project	 at the airport	 (Banila, 	
2022)	. The project	 was financed mainly through	 the EU’s Structural Funds	, supplemented by	 con-	
tributions from	 the state budget and the 	budget of the county. 	In addition to	 a new	 terminal 	
building, the 	new modernization project includes the following	 (Bog'Art, 2024)	: 	
• 	security enhancements 	 	
• 	installation of 	automated 	baggage handling s	ystem	 	
• 	upgraded runway lighting system	 	
• 	construction of a new fire station 	 	
• 	expansion of the aircraft parking apron	 	
• 	refurbishment of the existing terminal 	 	
When assessing the current conditions of the airport, the 2023 business plan states that the most 
important areas of improvement were related to the capacity of terminal passenger processing 
and 	the level of	 operation compared to existing 	traffic 	demand	 (Satu Mare International Airport, 	
2023)	. Additionally, the runway was severely deteriorated, further stressing the need for im-	
proved airport infrastructure and the importance of the funds acquired the preceding year.	 	
In June 2024, cont	ractor 	Bog’Art 	informed	 that the construction work 	was	 95% completed	, 	
though 	the project o	riginall	y was expected to be completed by the end of 2023	. All investment 	
costs	 through 2023	 would be 	covered 	by the EU funds, whil	e costs incurred after 	2023 	needed to 	
be financed by 	the 	Satu Mare 	county council. 	This 	has 	delayed 	the 	final	 stage 	of the project, 	but 	
the 	county council has	 successfully secured 	the	 necessary	 credit	 to 	finalize	 it. 	
1.2.2	 	A need for more energy	 	
Once 	completed	, the airport will 	have	 five 	main	 elem	ents 	that 	all require 	a sufficient and reliable 	
power supply	: two terminals	, one administrative 	office building, one building serving as a fire 	
station	, and 	the beacons of 	the	 runway.	 With one new and one 	refurbished terminal, there will 	
0	
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000	
2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport	 	
 	
Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	14	 	
 
be several improvements with regards to energy efficiency	. Nevertheless, 	technical airport equip-	
ment	 and 	large public buildings 	in general	 will 	consume	 significant amounts of 	power	. 	
Th	e office building and the	 old	 fire station 	ha	ve	 been	 heated 	through	 fuel combustion and 	have 	
therefore not 	been 	the most 	electricity 	demanding features.	 However	, the	re has	 still	 been a	 need	 	
for	 a certain amount of	 electrical energy to power	 lights,	 computers	, communication	 systems	, 	
vehicles 	and other chargeable equipment	. 	
The two terminal buildings	 and the new fire station	 will	 use	 ground	-to-air	 heat pumps	. and	 instal-	
ments 	of solar thermal energy 	on the roofs	. This 	is a lot	 more	 energy	 efficient	 than b	urning 	fuel	, 	
but the 	terminals require energy for more than just heating	. After all they are	 the	 buildings that	 	
accommodate all passenger	s, which	 makes	 the	m the	 predominant 	electri	city	 consum	ing 	feature	 	
of airport	s in general	 (Li, 2017)	. 	
Capacity drastically increases with the new terminal	, and 	the number of passenger	s is expected	 	
to increase	 by over 	12	% 	in 2025 	(Satu Mare International Airport, 2023)	. This means 	energy	 con-	
sumption	 most likely	 will	 rise as well	, along with	 operational costs	 (Li, 2017)	. As for 	the heating of 	
the 	administrative building, fuel 	combustion is 	polluting	 and maint	enan	ce	-requiring and	 could	 	
advantageously 	be	 replaced as 	an energy	 source	. Evidently, there is	 a need fo	r more, and prefer-	
ably cheap, power. 	 	
1.3	 	Political context	 	
Airports are 	key elements of transport infrastructure	, ensuring 	mobility of	 people and goods	 both 	
nationally and internationally	. Combined with th	eir 	econom	ies 	of 	scale	, massive	 energy consump-	
tion	 and the vast CO	2 emissions from aviation,	 there 	is also	 a political 	context	 to 	airport	s and their	 	
energy conditions	. Satu Mare International Airport is no exception. 	 	
1.3.1	 	The European Union	 	
As a member of the EU, Romani	a is bound by 	the 	EU’s goals and targets for GHG emission reduc-	
tion, which implies more renewable energy.	 Through 	the policy init	iative package European 	
Green Deal	, the 	Union’s 	ultimate goal is reaching climate ne	utrality for the entire continent by 	
2050	. Among other things, t	his entails 	reducing 	GHG emis	sions by 	55%	 com	pared to 1990	 within 	
2030	, and 	for t	he share of renewables 	in the EU’s overall energy consumption to 	be 42	.5% by the 	
same year	 (EU, 2023)	. In 	combination with the energy market disruption	 caused by Russia’s inva-	
sion of Ukraine, 	the	se goals 	have motivated the	 2022	 launch	 of the REPowerEU Plan	, which is 	
helping 	save energy, diversify energy supply and produce clean energy. 	 	
While	 the	 green transition 	is communal 	and cooperative in essence, the E	U also runs specific 	
programs of cohesion and 	inter	connectivity	. The 	Cohesion Policy 	aims 	at supporting 	competitive-	
ness	, economic growth	 and sustainable development	, targeting regions and cities 	in the 	union. 	It 	
is delivered through specific funds, such as 	the	 European Regional Development Fund	 (ERDF)	 and 	
the 	Cohesion Fund (	CF)	. These are among the E	Us 	structural funds, 	where the 	latter 	particularly 	
support	s projects 	in the field	s of environment	 and transport	 in less developed regions	. 	
Th	ese 	strategies contextualize 	the 	Sat	u Mare 	International Airport on a European political level	. 	
The airport’s	 significance	 for 	economic development	 and	 regional	 transport	 infra	structure	 makes

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Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	15	 	
 
it a rele	vant	 investment project for EU Structural 	Funds	. The airport’s	 capacity expansion	, while 	
exploiting	 modern	 and	 energy efficient solutions, 	brings 	an increased need for energy	. Given the 	
EU’s 	goals 	and policy 	programs	 regarding green transitioning, 	the energy 	should	 preferably	 be 	
met by	 energy from	 renewable sources	. 	
1.3.2	 	Rene	wable energy in 	Romania and Satu Mare	 	
EU polic	ies and directives are complemented by domestic, Romanian polic	ies. 	Romania’s National 	
Energy Climate Plan	 (Romanian Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, 2020)	 has set a goal 	
of 49	% renewable energy in electricity production in 2030, an increase of 6 percentage points 	
compared to today. The goal for the share of renewable energy in energy production is 30.7	%. 	
This figure is pulled down by lower shares in transportation (14.2	% renewables) and heating and 	
cooling (33	%). 	
To reach these goals, and as a part of the Romanian National Resiliency and Recovery Plan, coal 
and lignite will be phased out from electricity 	generation	 by 2032. This entails replacing about 	
20	% of total 	generation	 and is a huge opportunity for renewable energy technologies. Factoring 	
in some increase in total consumption, the goal is to develop 6.9 GW renewable 	power	 by 2030, 	
compared to 2015.	 	
As illustrated by	 Figure 	1.2, renewable energy makes up 41% of the electricity generation sources 	
in Romania. Another 21% comes from nuclear power and biofuels, which are not renewable, but 
are 	associated with	 low emissions. The remaining 37% are coal, oil and natural gas, meaning 	
about two fifths of Romania’s electricity is generated from non	-renewable sources with consid-	
erable GHG emissions. 	 	
Figure 	1.2 	Electricity generation sources, Romania, 2022	 	
 	
Source: IEA Data Services, 2024	 	
 
In the 	county	 of Satu Mare there is	 high	 potential for contributing 	to the goals	 of the National 	
Energy Climate Plan	. In some rural areas 	biomass is used for heating	, and	 there	 are some 	
Coal
19 %	
Oil
2 %
Natural gas	
17 %	
Biofuels
1 %	Nuclear
20 %	
Hydro
26 %
Solar PV
3 %	
Wind
12 %

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Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	16	 	
 
scattered	 occurrences of	 wind	- and hydropower	 (Asociata de Dezvoltare Judetul Satu Mare, 	
2023)	. However, 	the most common renewable energy source 	is solar power	, which 	also has the 	
best resource poten	tial	 (Vista Analyse, 2023)	. Solar photovoltaic	 (PV)	 panels	 are found on 	the 	
roof	s of numerous h	ouses and public buildings	, and there are several providers of	 solar PVs in the 	
county	. 	
1.4	 	Potential renewable energy sources and energy efficiency 
measures	 	
Vista Analyse has 	analysed	 the potential for renewable energy sources in the Satu Mare region 	
(Vista Analyse, 2023)	. The report evaluated 	the potential 	for energy production from several re-	
newable sources, including solar, wind, bioenergy, 	hydropower, and geothermal energy	. Solar 	
energy and bioenergy 	were	 deemed the most promising 	sources in Satu Mare. 	 	
The 	resource potential for wind energy	, as measured by average wind speed, is 	not particularly 	
good. It is also problematic to 	implement	 wind turbines at the airport	. There is no know	n source 	
of geothermal h	eat 	that is 	suitable for power 	generation	 at the airport and	 no resources for hy-	
dropower. 	 	
There are biomass resources in the region	, but 	utilizing these for power 	generation	 at the airport 	
is likely 	expensive due to lack of economy of scale and uncertainty 	regarding 	stable delivery of	 	
substrate. 	The new terminal will use electricity as the 	main 	source for heating	. 	
Solar energy has the best potential for 	energy	 production at the airport	, both through solar heat-	
ing and photovoltaic 	cells. 	Both technologies are	 well	-known 	and	 can be implemented at 	any	 	
scale	. The airport already has 	solar heating panels installed on the roof and a 	water	-based	 distri-	
bution of heat around the building. 	Power that is necessary for running the heat pumps and other 	
equipment, 	is supplied by the grid.	 	
The airport 	terminal is newly renovated 	with modern energy efficient solutions such as solar heat-	
ing and ground	-to-water heat pumps. 	Thus,	 this report does not look 	at energy efficiency 	
measures, but rather 	options for complementing 	the grid with solar PV panels 	and possibly bat-	
teries,	 to supply the airport with the necessary 	power	 to operate	.

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2	 	Airport activity and energy con-
sumption	 	
To assess the feas	ibility of 	solar energy production at Satu Mare International Airport, a 	compre-	
hensive understanding of the airport and its energy 	consumption is required	. In this chapter we 	
present	 numbers of 	this	 consumption 	the 	recent years	. We 	decompose 	them	 to estimate 	the 	
future need for energy	, taking into account 	both the increase	 in expected number of passengers 	
and the efficiency gains 	from refurbishment and a new modern terminal.	 	
2.1	 	Energy 	consumption	 at Satu Mare International Airport	 	
In general,	 airports 	cover 	wide areas and 	co	nsume	 vast	 amounts of energy compared to	 other 	
transportation hubs 	(Li, 2017)	. There are several aspects 	of an airport 	that create	 rather extensive 	
requirements for electrical energy	: 	
• 	Operation of the t	erminal: lighting	 and h	eating	, ventilation and air	-conditioning	 (HVAC)	 may 	
require a lot of energy, particularly at bigger airports.	 	
• 	Handling of l	uggage: conveyer belts and other automated luggage systems require energy 	
for transporting and sorting luggage.	 	
• 	Security: surveillance systems and x	-ray scanners need sufficient energy.	 	
• 	IT and communication: Data systems, servers, information boards, radars and communica-
tion systems all depend on energy to operate. 	 	
Exactly how much energy these functions and installations 	consume	 is largely determined by 	
the scale of 	the airport	 and how much 	it is	 used	. For most components	 this	 mainly	 depends on 	
the number of	 travellers	 and 	flights	, while 	tasks like li	ght	ing and 	HVAC	 have a 	more baseline	-	
oriented us	age.	 	
Figure 	2.1 	Electricity consumption at Satu Mare International Airport 2019	-2023	 	
 	
Source: Satu Mare International Airport Management	 	
616	
573	586	
558	
662	
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
680	
2019	2020	2021	2022	2023	
MWh

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Figure 	2.1 shows the 	electricity	 consumption at 	Sa	tu Mare International Airport	 the last five years	. 	
During the pandemic, consumpti	on declined 	by 	58 MWh from 2019 to 2022	, before 	jumping 	to a 	
total 	of 662 MWh	 in 2023	, when con	struction 	of the new terminal com	menced.	 The 	investment 	
project at 	the 	airport	 results in a	 considerably larger	 total	 terminal area	, implying 	a larger future 	
electricity consumption	. After refurbishment	, the existing terminal will 	be comprised of four 	
floors, with a total 	usable are	a of 	3 130	 m2. In addition to a basement for	 different	 technical	 	
rooms, 	luggage	 lane monitoring, etc., the 	new terminal will have two floors	, giving a total of 	5778	 	
m2. The two terminals combined 	then hold 	8 908	 m2 of usable area	, that 	will require energy 	for 	
different purposes. 	Still	, the 	terminals	 are	 quite sma	ll for an	 international 	airport	. For comparison	 	
the terminal building at	 Oslo Airport Gardermoen	 has a	n area of	 295	 000 	m2. 	
Figure 	2.2 	Average monthly 	electricity	 consumption, 2019	-2023	 	
 	
Source: Satu Mare International Airport 	Management	 and Vista Analyse	 	
For an airport, t	he average monthly el	ectricity consumption 	profile 	take	s on a somewhat	 ex-	
pected shap	e. As shown in 	Figure 	2.2, c	onsumption is highest 	during winter months, when tem-	
peratures are low	, requiring more electricity 	for 	indoor 	heating	. As 	spring 	arrives	 and outside 	
temperatures ris	e, consumption declines	 and is 	at its lowest 	during	 April and May with 	41 MWh	. 	
In summertime 	consumption increases 	again, 	most likely due to 	increased traffic	, as well as the 	
need for indoor cooling	. Consumption then sees a little d	ip 	in the early autumn	, before 	increasing 	
as winter approaches again. 	It peaks in December at 68 MWh.	 	
63 	
51 	49 	
41 	41 	44 	48 	48 	43 	47 	
57 	
68 	
 -
 10
 20
 30
 40
 50
 60
 70
 80
MWh

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Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	19	 	
 
Figure 	2.3 	Average hourly electricity consumption	, November and December 2023	 	
 	
Sour	ce: 	Satu Mare International Airport 	Management 	and Vista Analyse	 	
Average hourly electricity consumption is shown in 	Figure 	2.3, and is based on the last two 	
months of 2023. The consumption is lowest during the night, with close to no variation between 
the hourly averages. The consumption stays stable around 112 kWh from midnight to around 
06:00. From there, it quickly increases o	ver the next three hours, peaking at about 175 kWh at 	
09:00. The consumption then gradually declines throughout the day, staying above 140 kWh per 
hour until 16.30, before swiftly coming down to about 112 kWh again during the evening. This 
consumption prof	ile appears fairly typical for a public building. However, the kilowatt	-hours 	
themselves may be a little overblown due to the construction work these two months. 	 	
2.2	 	Expected activity and 	electricity 	consumption at the airport	 	
As previously 	mentioned,	 accommodating pas	sengers is the main purpose of the terminal build-	
ings at airports	, which 	is 	also	 what	 causes them to consume a lot of energy.	 The relationship 	
between	 energy consumption and number of passengers 	at 	Satu Mare International Airport 	spe-	
cifically 	is therefore 	essential in 	estimating the future need for energy.	 	
2.2.1	 	Passengers and flights	 	
As 	two 	new airlines	 intend to 	start operating 	regularly from Satu Mar	e, the 	airport 	management 	
expects	 an	 increase in airport 	activity in	 the coming years	 (Satu Mare International Airport, 2023)	. 	
Based on	 post	-pandemic	 traffic trends at airports	, management has 	estimated	 the expected num-	
ber of passengers and flight 	movements	 each year 	up until 2035. 	This is 	summarized	 in Table 	2.1. 	
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
kWh

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Table 	2.1 	Expected number of passengers and 	flight movements	 	
Year	 	Number of passengers	 	Number of flight movements	 	
2024	 	65	 230	 	1 300	 	
2025	 	73	 058	 	1 456	 	
2026	 	81	 825	 	1 631	 	
2027	 	91	 644	 	1 827	 	
2028	 	109	 973	 	2 192	 	
2029	 	126	 469	 	2 521	 	
2030	 	145	 439	 	2 899	 	
2031	 	167	 255	 	3 334	 	
2032	 	192	 343	 	3 834	 	
2033	 	221	 194	 	4 409	 	
2034	 	254	 373	 	5 070	 	
2035	 	292	 529	 	5 831	 	
Source:	 	Satu Mare International Airport 	 	
Th	ese projections	 mean 	increasing	 the number of passengers 	from 2023	 more than 	five	-fold	 over 	
the next 	twelve years	. Th	ey	 entail	 a gradual	, but 	substantial	 change 	in traffic 	from	 previous years 	
and the current situation	, which is	 likely to 	have	 consequences for energ	y consumptio	n (Li, 2017)	. 	
2.2.2	 	Estimated	 electricity consumption	 	
The estimates for future energy consumption at the airport 	terminals	 are based on 	data	 provided 	
by	 the 	Satu Mare International 	airport management. This data includes	: 	
• 	Number of passengers per year, from 2019 to 2023.	 	
• 	Estimated number of 	passengers per year, from 2025 to 2035.	 	
• 	Monthly electricity consumption	 (in kWh)	, from January 2019 to December 2023. 	 	
• 	The floor area (in square meters) of the old and new terminal buildings.	 	
We 	(European Comission, 2024)	, incorporating a dummy variable for each month based on his-	
torical data and one variable for monthly passenger count. This gave us 	an estimate for 	annual	 	
electricity consumption based on the area of the old terminal. 	 	
In order t	o adjust this estimate 	for	 the	 refurbishment of the	 old terminal 	and the opening of 	the 	
ne	w terminal	, we 	assume	 that the refurbished terminal and the new terminal will be more energy 	
efficient than 	the old terminal.	 Additionally, we assume that the increase in 	indoor area	 will not 	
lead to a proportional rise in electricity consumption. While the old 	terminal	 was smaller	, it still 	
contained all the essential equipment required for airport operations. 	We do not anticipate a 	
proportional increase in electricity	-consuming equipment with the additional 	indoor area	. As a 	
result, the electricity consumption per square meter is expected to be lower in the refurbished 
terminal and the new terminal building.	 Taking th	is into account, we have assumed that the new 	
terminal will be 50	% more energy efficient than the 	old. 	 	
The annual electricity consumption is then 	split	 between	 months	 based on the historical distribu-	
tion of 	consumption	 from 2019 to 2023. As a result, electricity consumption is higher in winter

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport	 	
 	
Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	21	 	
 
months. Similarly, the expected annual number of passengers is distributed across months ac-
cording to historical passenger data from 2019 to 2023, allowing us to account for the rise in 
passenger numbers during vacation periods, especially in the summer mo	nths.	 Electricity con-	
sumption per 	hour	 is based on data giving the variation between hours from November 1	st, 2023,	 	
to January 1	st, 2024	. 	
Figure 	2.4 shows the estimated 	annual	 electricity consumption at Satu Mare Airport. The 2025 	
estimate is 	300 MWh higher than the average in the historical data, accounting for the new 	equ	ip-	
ment and 	additional 	terminal building. The yearly consumption increases every year as the num-	
ber of passengers increase. 	The complete table with monthly estimates is attached in appendix 	
A. 	
Figure 	2.4 	Estimated yearly electricity consumption at Satu Mare International Airport	 
 	
Source: Vista Analyse	 
892	896	902	912	921	931	943	957	973	
991	
1012	
800
850
900
950
1 000
1 050	
2025	2026	2027	2028	2029	2030	2031	2032	2033	2034	2035	
MWh

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3	 	Key	 pre	-conditions for	 solar en-	
ergy production	 	
3.1	 	Regulations 	 	
In Romania	, the	 regulations and laws regarding 	renewable 	energy production 	differ	 depending 	
on	 whether you are a prosumer or not, 	as well as	 the production capacity of the installation. 	 	
A prosumer is a	n individual, household 	or business that both produce	s and consume	s a good or 	
service	. In the context of energy, it often refers to 	household	s or business	es that both generate 	
electricity 	using	 renewable energy s	ources, such as solar panels, and at the same time	 use this 	
energy 	to cover their own demand. 	 	
According to 	Article 3, 	point	 95 of 	Law	 No. 123/	2012	 (Ministerul Justitiei, 2012)	, a prosumer is 	
defined a final	 consumer 	that also 	meets the following criteria	: 	
• 	conducts its activities in its own space related to a connection point with the electrical net-
work	, 	
• 	produce	s electricity from renewable energy sources for 	their 	own use	, 	
• 	the main activity is not electricity production	, 	
• 	consume	s, store	s, or sell	s the produced electricity from renewable energy sources to either 	
the e	lectricity	 supplier 	the prosumer	 ha	s a contract with	, or other consumers	. 	
By this definition, 	Satu Mare International 	airport 	qualifies as	 a prosumer.	 	
Prosumers that have a	n installation with a	 maximum effect of 400 	kilowatts	 are treated according 	
to procedures given in ANRE Order nr. 19/2022	 (Ministerul Justitiei, 2022)	. This order states that 	
prosumers 	who	 own a renewable energy installation with a maximum effect of 400 k	ilowatts	 can 	
commercialise the electricity produced without the need for registration and authorisation of 
their operation. 	 	
The 	setup 	for connecting the renewable energy installation to the grid must allow both consump-	
tion from the grid and delivery of the produced electricity to the grid in the same connection. 
Measuring the electricity must be done with either a smart meter or a meter 	that allows remote 	
reading and can be integrated with the smart meters used by the grid operator. If the prosumer 
has a 	system	 that includes energy stor	age	, a separate meter must be installed for that system.	 	
Th	e order 	also 	establishes 	two different mechanisms	 based on the prosumer’s installed capacity:	 	
1. For prosumers 	with a maximum 	capacity	 of less	 than 200 kilowatts,	 the quantitative mecha-	
nism applies. Under this mechanism, the prosumer is billed for the difference between the 
electricity consumed from the grid and the electricity they produce.	 	
2. For 	prosumers with 	a maximum capacity between 200 and 400 kilowatts, the financial re	gu-	
lation mechanism applies. 	Electricity suppliers that enter contract with these prosumers are 	
obligated to buy the electricity that is produced and delivered to the grid at the weighted

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Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	23	 	
 	
average price registered in the day	-ahead market for the month the electricity was pro-	
duced and delivered. 	 	
Prosumers that have a maximum effect of more than 400 kW are treated according to procedures 
given in Article 55 paragraph (3) in 	the	 Regulation on the Connection of Users to Public Electricity 	
Networks	 (Autoritatea Naţională de Reglementare în domeniul Energiei, 2023)	. This regulation 	
gives the steps and procedures necessary to connect the providers’ installations to the public 
electricity grid	. 	
3.2	 	Resource potential 	 	
The airport has an area of approximately 52	 000 square meters at ground level that is available 	
for installing solar PV panels. I	n addition, there is an area of 356 square meters on the roof of the 	
administrative building available. 	 	
The ground level area is flat with pastures and well suited for hosting PV panels. The surrounding 
area is also flat and there are no major obstacles that could block the sun. To assess the solar 
irradiation at the airport, we use the simulation software P	VGIS tool from the European Commis-	
sion. 	PVGIS	 uses satellite data to simulate solar radiation at a given coordinate. The monthly 	av-	
erage power generation from a 400 kWp system is 	at the Satu Mare airport is shown in 	Figure 	3.1 	
below. 	 	
Figure 	3.1 	Monthly average power generation with 400 kWp system.	 	
 	
Source: PVGIS	 	
Delivered power from the PV panels will be lower than the power produced by the PV cells due 
to loss in cables, inverters and dust or snow covering the modules. The modules will also lose 
their efficiency over time. We assume a total system loss of 14%, whi	ch is the standard assump-	
tion by PVGIS. 	 
16	
26	
43	
52	52	
57	56	59	
46	
37	
23	
16	
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70	
jan	feb	mar	apr	may	jun	jul	aug	sep	oct	nov	dec	
MWh

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Figure 	3.1 shows that the power generation varies significantly through the year, reaching peak 	
generation in the summer months of June, July and August. 	Figure 	3.2 shows average hourly 	
power generation in each season.	1 	
Figure 	3.2 	Average hourly power generation with 400 kWp system.	 	
 	
Source:	 	PVGI	S 	
The area enables complete freedom in placement of the panels. Thus, we assume that the PV 
panels are placed facing south	, with a fixed slope of 3	5 degrees. 	 	
The area that is required to produce a given amount of power depends on the efficiency of the 
PV panels and the required spacing between panels to avoid panels casting a shade over each 
other. 	 	
We assume PV modules with 22	.6% max efficiency as given in the technical documentation from 	
the providers. Given a 400 kWp system, this implies that the modules cover 1770 square meters. 
In addition, spacing between modules is needed for maintenance purposes and to avoid panels 
casting 	shade over each other.	 	
An upper estimate of the required ground area for a 400 kWp is 10	 000 square meters, including 	
the required space between modules. Thus, even for a 1600 kWp system, the required ground 
area is well below the available 52	 000 square meters at	 the 	airport,	 and 	ground area 	is not a 	
constraint for PV power generation at the airport. 	 	
3.3	 	Economic aspects	 	
Like most investments	, there are 	capital expenditures and 	operational expenses associated with 	
producing solar energy 	at Satu Mare International Airport. 	Since the 	airport	 will have the possi-	
bility to sell 	surplus electricity to the grid, the investment is also associated with a potential 	
 	
1 Winter includes the months of December, January and February; spring includes March, April and May; summer in-
cludes June, July and August; autumn includes September, October and November. 	 	
0
50
100
150
200
250
300	
00:10	01:10	02:10	03:10	04:10	05:10	06:10	07:10	08:10	09:10	10:10	11:10	12:10	13:10	14:10	15:10	16:10	17:10	18:10	19:10	20:10	21:10	22:10	23:10	
kWh	
Winter	Spring	Summer	Autumn

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income. 	These economic 	aspects	 are presented below and	 provide the basis for the business 	
case	s presented 	later, 	in chapter 	4. 	
3.3.1	 	CAPEX and OPEX 	 	
The capital expenditure (CAPEX) 	and operational expenses (OPEX) 	associated with installing solar 	
energy at the airport 	may 	vary	 between providers. 	To 	give	 insightful	 estimate	s of 	the 	costs the 	
airport 	may	 incur	 when 	investing	 in a solar installation	, we have 	gathered	 cost 	information	 from 	
a two 	relevant	 local provider	s of solar energy 	instalments 	in Sa	tu Mare	. They will 	henceforth be 	
referred to as 	provider A and 	provider B. 	 	
CAPEX	 	
Provider A can deliver the	 solar panels for an investment cost of 1000 euros per kWp, VAT ex-	
cluded. This includes all the labor needed to install the modules, the necessary documentation, 
the structure the panels are mounted on, photovoltaic cables (DC), power cables (AC), the pane	ls 	
(AC and DC), inverters, measuring and monitoring equipment (LOGGER), perimeter fencing, and 
warranties. 	The very same delivery can be made by 	provider B for an investment cost of 647.5 	
euros	 per kWp	, excluding VAT. 	The panels a	re expected to produce upwards of 99 % initial capac-	
ity in the first year, before efficiency decreases 0.4% each year throughout their 30	-year lifespan. 	
During this period production should stay above 85% of initial capacity with annual maintenance.	 	
Both	 provider	s can also deliver energy storage 	systems	, with 	battery 	capacities at 161 kWh and 	
193.5 	kWh. 	The recommended capacity exploitation range for maximizing the battery lifespan is 	
a 95% charging level and a 20% discharging level. At these levels the batteries are expected to 
endure over 5000 charging cycles. They will, however, experience a 2% decrease	 in storage ca-	
pacity each year, leading to a need for replacement after 	approximately 15	 years. 	In addition to 	
the battery pack, 	the 	energy 	storage system includes s	mart rack controllers	 and a 	Smart PCS	 	
(Power Conversion System) 	for battery monitoring and 	optimization	, inver	ting 	currents an	d man-	
aging electricity	 flow	. The investment cost for the 161	-kWh 	storage system	 is 75 000 euros	 with 	
provider A, and	 59 000	 euros from provider 	B, VAT excluded	. For the 	193.5	-kWh 	system	 the in-	
vestment cost 	is 90 000 euros 	with 	provider A	, and 66	 000 euro	s with 	provider B	. 	
Table 	3.1 	Capital expenditure	 	
Instalment	 	Investment cost 	provider A	 	
(excl. VAT)	 	
Investment cost	 provider B	 	
(excl. VAT	) 	
PV panels (1 kWp)	 	1000 	€ 	647.5	 € 	
Battery 161 kWh	 	75 000 	€ 	59 000	 € 	
Battery 	193.5	 kWh	 	90	 000 	€ 	66 000	 € 	
Source: Vista Analyse	 	
OPEX	 	
The operational costs are related to the maintenance required to keep the panels and batteries 
fully functional throughout their lifespan. This could be tasks like fixing occurring problems,

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cleaning, physical checks and software tests. 	Provider	 A states the operational costs of the PV 	
panels to be 12 euros per kWp each year	, excluding VAT	, while provider B states 	6.48 euros per 	
kWp.	 	
For the energy storage 	systems	, the 	yearly 	operational costs are the same for 	the different types 	
of batter	ies	, independent of their individual capacity. 	This amounts	 to 2000 euros excluding VAT	 	
with provider A	. With provider B	 the 	yearly 	operational cost	s are	 660	 euros	, but 	only for the 	first 	
battery. 	Should 	more 	batteries be installed the 	operational costs for the additional ones are 330 	
euros per year. 	 	
Table 	3.2 	Operational expenses	 	
Instalment	 	Oper	ational	 cost	s provider A	 	
(excl. 	VAT	) 	
Oper	ational	 cost	s provider B	 	
(excl. VAT	) 	
PV panels (1 	kWp)	 	12 	€ 	6.48 	€ 	
 First	 battery	 	2000 	€ 	660	 € 	
Additional batter	y 	2000 	€ 	330 €	 	
Source: Vista Analyse	 	
3.3.2	 	Income	 	
The revenue associated with installing photovoltaic panels comes from a combination of reduced 
electricity costs and income generated by 	selling surplus electricity to the grid. By producing their 	
own energy, the airport	’s electricity costs	 can	 be	 reduce	d by the electricity produced times the 	
electricity 	price th	at would otherwise	 be	 pai	d when purchasing from the grid.	 As of January 2025, 	
the Romanian government has enforced caps on electricity prices to help manage the rising en-
ergy costs. According to 	Article 1	 in 	Emergency Ordinance No. 192/2022, 	which has been ex-	
tended to March 31	st, 2025, the price for non	-household consumers is 0.26 eu	ros per kWh in-	
cluding VAT	 (Ministerul Justitiei, 2022)	. 	
In the hours	 when	 produ	ction is higher	 than	 consum	ption	, the 	surplus	 electricity	 can be 	stored 	in 	
batteries	, should they also be installed	. When consumption is no longer continuously covered by 	
production, the electricity stored in the batteries can then take over as supply source. This further 
enables 	avoiding costs	 from purchasing grid electricity. 	Should	 production exceed	 both consump-	
tion and 	the	 battery	 storage	 capacity,	 this electricity	 can be sold back	 to the grid	. Under	 normal 	
circumstances, the price received fr	om	 selling electricity to the grid is calculated as the weighted 	
average day	-ahead market price for the month in which the electricity was generated. 	However, 	
the grid operator in Satu Mare informs that 	at this point 	there will be a constant price of 	0.06 	
euros per kWh.	 This will	 almost certainly not be the case throughout the entire 	30	-year 	solar	 	
energy production period, but as it is the current 	first	-hand	 information, 	the income calculations 	
will be based on this	 price	. 	
3.4	 	Social	 and environmental	 aspects 	 	
Besides	 the fact that	 solar PVs at	 Satu Mare International 	Airport	 generally	 would 	contribute 	to 	
cover	ing	 the need for 	electricity	 and reducing the 	airport’s 	operational costs	, there are also som	e 	
social and 	environmental 	aspects	 to be discussed.

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If the airport sources all its electricity from the grid, the emissions will be determined by the 
Romanian energy mix	 given in 	Figure 	1.2. Both the European 	Environment	 Agency and 	The 	
UNFCCC secretariat	 (UN Climate Change) 	publish estimates for C0	2 equivalents per 	kilowatt	-hour	 	
of electricity. 	According	 to the EEA, the greenhouse gas emission intensity of electricity genera-	
tion in Romania was 	0.234 kg	 CO2eq per kilowatt	-hour 	in 2023 	(EEA, 2024)	, while the 	UNFCCC's 	
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Calculator 	estimated	 0.2895 kg CO	2eq per kilowatt	-hour	 for 2022	 	
(UNFCCC, 2023)	. Electricity produced by 	solar energy	 is considered zero emissions, so every 	kilo-	
watt	-hour produced by photovoltaic panels would decrease the airports 	C0	2 emissions by be-	
tween	 0.234	 and	 0.2895 kg	 CO	2eq. 	 	
Another 	aspect 	of power production is	 air pollution	. Air pollution caused by the “traditional pol-	
lutants” 	– particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns per cubic meter (PM2.5) along with nitro-	
gen dioxide (NO	2) and ozone (O	3) – is still a serious problem in Europe	 and Romania	. These parti-	
cles are 	associated wi	th over 8 million 	worldwide 	premature deaths each year	, and mainly 	stem 	
from electricity generation	 from 	burning 	fossil fuel	, transportation 	and the chemical and mining 	
industries	 (UN Environment Programme, 2023)	. Though the 	amounts 	are low	 compared to fossil	 	
fuel	 power	, air polluting emissions	 do 	also 	occur	 with power production from	 some ren	ewable	 	
sources	, such as 	ge	othermal power	 plant	s. Solar energy, on the other hand, is 	not a source of a	ir 	
pollution	, meaning 	solar PVs at Satu Mare International Airport 	contribute	 to mitigating 	these 	
emissions	.

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4	 	Business case	 	
Based on the information presented in the foregoing chapters we have established 	multiple	 op-	
tions for investments in photovoltaic panels and energy storage 	(batteries) 	at Satu Mare Interna-	
tional Airport. 	All investment options, presented	 below in	 Table 	4.1, involve a 400 kWp photovol-	
taic system but differ in the amount of 	storage	 capacity installed. 	A capacity of 400	 kWp	 was 	
selected	 based on current regulations	 regarding renewable energy production	 in Romania	, as 	
discussed	 in 	chapter 	3. By 	staying	 below the 400 	kWp 	threshold	, the airport 	avoids the need for 	
additional assessments, 	documentation,	 and application procedures. 	The first option 	includes 	
only 	photovoltaic panels	, with	 no storage capacity. 	The following options have increasing amount 	
of storage capacity, up until 935kW, which 	is sufficient to store almost the entire	 electricity 	pro-	
duction, even 	during high	-output	 summer months. 	 	
Table 	4.1 	Investment options	 	 	
Photovoltaic panels	 	Storage	 capacity	 	
Option 1	 	400 kWp	 	0 	
Option 2	 	400 kWp	 	193,5 kW	h 	
Option 3	 	400 kWp	 	387 kW	h 	
Option 4	 	400 kWp	 	580,5 kW	h 	
Option 5	 	400 kWp	 	774 kW	h 	
Option 6	 	400 kWp	 	935 kW	h 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse	 	
4.1	 	Investment	 and maintenance 	 	
Table 	4.2 outlines	 the capital expenditure (CAPEX	), combining the cost of a 400kWp	 photovoltaic 	
system	 and 	varying	 battery storage capacities. 	The	se numbers are based on 	the costs described 	
in chapter 	3.3.1	. The investment cost	 for the photovoltaic panels	 remains	 constant across all op-	
tions	 for both providers	. However, the total investment cost 	rises	 as the 	electricity	 storage capac-	
ity 	is increased	. Provider A	 charges	 a fixed	 cost of 400	 000 euros for the photovoltaic panels, 	
whereas	 Provider B 	offers 	a price of	 259 000 euros. 	Additionally, Provider B also provides 	lower 	
prices for batteries	, making it the cheaper alternative overall.	 	
Table 	4.2 	Investment cost (CAPEX)	 	 	
Provider A	 	Provider B	 	
Option 1	 	400	 000 €	 	259	 000	 € 	
Option 2	 	490	 000 €	 	325	 000	 € 	
Option 3	 	580	 000 €	 	391	 000	 € 	
Option 4	 	670	 000 €	 	457	 000	 € 	
Option 5	 	760	 000 €	 	523	 000	 € 	
Option 6	 	835	 000 €	 	582	 000	 € 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse

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Both the photovoltaic panels and 	batteries 	used 	for 	electricity 	storage 	require regular	 mainte-	
nance	 to ensure 	optimal performance	 and 	longevity throughout their expected lifetime	. Table 	4.3 	
provides an overview of the 	total 	annual 	maintenance costs for photovoltaic panels	 and 	batteries	 	
given by the providers	. The m	aintenance cost for the photovoltaic panels 	remain 	constant	 across	 	
all options, 	as the size of the photovoltaic system is the same	. The maintenance cost for the 	bat-	
teries	, on the other hand, varies depending on the installed storage capacity	. 	
Table 	4.3 	Annual	 maintenance cost (OPEX)	 	 	
Provider A	 	Provider B	 	
Option 1	 	4 800	 € 	2 590	 € 	
Option 2	 	6 800	 € 	3 250	 € 	
Option 3	 	8 800	 € 	3 580	 € 	
Option 4	 	10	 800	 € 	3 910	 € 	
Option 5	 	12	 800	 € 	4 240	 € 	
Option 6	 	14	 800	 € 	4 57	0 € 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse	 	
Based on information from 	Provider A	, it is assumed that new batteries will need to be 	purchased 	
after 15 years	. This analysis assumes that the investment cost for the second battery replacement 	
will be the same as the initial investment cost	. However, it 	could be	 reasonable to anticipate that 	
battery prices will decrease over the next 15 years due to advancements in technology. 	The pho-	
tovoltaic panels 	have	 a lifetime of 30 years, and it is not assumed that additional investments will 	
be needed	 in this period. 	 	
4.2	 	Revenue	 	
As mentioned in chapter 	3.3.2	, the 	revenue associated with installing photovoltaic panels comes 	
from a combination of reduction in electricity costs and income generated by selling excess elec-
tricity to the grid. 	Reduction in electricity costs comes from using the electricity directly and from 	
using electricity stored in batteries. 	The income from selling electricity is 	determined	 by multiply-	
ing the excess production by 	the 	electricity price 	set	 by the 	grid operator for 	energy 	sold 	back 	to 	
the grid. 	 	
Table 	4.4 	Annual 	revenue	 	 	
Reduced electricity costs	 	Income from selling electricity 	
to the grid	 	
Total 	revenue	 	
Option 1	 	 89	 557	 € 	 6 855	 € 	 96	 412 	€ 	
Option 2	 	 97	 082 	€ 	 4 690	 € 	 101	 772 	€ 	
Option 3	 	 103	 918 	€ 	 3 112	 € 	 107	 030 	€ 	
Option 4	 	 109	 181 	€ 	 1 898	 € 	 111	 079 	€ 	
Option 5	 	 112	 944 	€ 	 1 029	 € 	 113	 974 	€ 	
Option 6	 	 113	 750 	€ 	 797	 € 	 114	 547 	€ 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse	 	
Table 	4.4 summarises	 the 	average annual revenue	 generated from 	the 	photovoltaic system and 	
the varying levels of battery storage.	 The revenue varies from year to year, 	based on the state of

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the battery	, electricity consumption at the airport and 	pro	duction capacity of 	the 	photovoltaic 	
panels.	 Throughout their 30	-year lifetime the panels 	become	 0.4	% less efficient each year, and 	
the battery storage capacity 	decreases 	by	 approximately 2	% each year, until it 	reaches 	about 7	3% 	
of full capacity in year 15.	 	
As battery storage capacity increases from no storage in Option 1 to 935 kWh in Option 6, the 
reduction in electricity costs rises	 simultaneously	, from 	89 557	 to 	113	 750	 euros. 	The cost reduc-	
tion	 that comes	 from directly using the generated electricity remains 	constant	 across all options 	
but increases over time as the airport's electricity consumption grows	. The increase	 is due to the 	
use of stored electricity, which, not surprisingly, increases with the amount of available battery 
storage. 	On the other hand, income from selling electricity to the grid decreases as battery stor-	
age increases	, from close to 	7000 euros in option 1 to 	less than	 800	 euros in option 6	. As 	storage 	
capacity increases the	re is less excess electricity to sell	, and it is 	used	 for 	own 	consumption.	 Total 	
revenue increases with battery storage capacity because the price the airport pays for electricity 
purchased from the grid is higher than the price received for selling electricity back to the grid. 
By using stored electricity for 	own 	consumption, the airport replaces electricity that would oth-	
erwise have been purchased, thereby increasing overall revenue.	 	
4.3	 	Net present value (NPV)	 	
Table 	4.5 presents 	average annual	 cash flow, and the resulting NPV, calculated over a 30	-year 	
period with a discount rate of 10	%. While the revenue is higher 	for options with more storage 	
capacity due to 	reduced grid	-dependency, the higher investment and operatio	nal costs 	diminish 	
NPV for both 	Provider A and Provider B	. 	
Table 	4.5 	Annual revenue	 and net present value	 	 	
Provider A	 	Provider B	 	
 	Average c	ash flow	 	NPV	 	Average c	ash flow	 	NPV	 	
Option 1	 	 91 184 	€ 	 466 387 	€ 	 93 822 	€ 	 628 221 	€ 	
Option 2	 	 94 972 	€ 	 394	 021	 € 	 98	 522	 € 	 598 232 	€ 	
Option 3	 	 98 230 	€ 	 317 537 	€ 	 103	 450	 € 	 567 236 	€ 	
Option 4	 	 100	 279 	€ 	 230 384 	€ 	 107	 169	 € 	 525	 572	 € 	
Option 5	 	 101	 174 	€ 	 132 685 	€ 	 109	 734	 € 	 473 361 	€ 	
Option 6	 	 99 747 	€ 	 30 651 	€ 	 109 977 	€ 	 406 900 	€ 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse	 	
The average annual cash flow accounts for annual revenue, maintenance costs for both photo-
voltaic panels and storage systems, as well as the additional storage capacity investment required 
in year 15. The income remains identical between providers, as it i	s determined by production 	
levels, storage capacity, and the electricity price. However, Provider A's higher annual mainte-
nance costs and investment 	costs for new batteries	 result in lower cash flows across all options 	
compared to Provider B.

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Table 	4.6 	Net present value	 from batteries in isol	ation	 	 	
Provider A	 	Provider B	 	
 	NPV	 of 	all batteries	 	NPV of one addi-
tional battery	 	
NPV of all batteries	 	NPV of one addi-
tional battery	 	
Option 1	 	- 	- 	- 	- 	
Option 2	 	-72	 366 	€ 	-72 366 	€ 	-29 989 	€ 	-29	 989	 € 	
Option 3	 	-148 850 	€ 	-76 484 	€ 	-60 985 	€ 	-30	 996	 € 	
Option 4	 	-236 003 	€ 	-87 153 	€ 	-102 649 	€ 	-41	 665	 € 	
Option 5	 	-333 702 	€ 	-97 699 	€ 	-154 860 	€ 	-52	 211	 € 	
Option 6	 	-435 736 	€ 	-102 034 	€ 	-221 320 	€ 	-66	 460	 € 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse	 	
Table 	4.6 describes the net present value of batteries in isolation 	for both providers, across op-	
tions. 	The first column 	summarises the 	NPV for total storage capacity in each option	 and the 	
second column 	gives the 	NPV of adding another 195	.3 kWh in storage capacity	. For both providers	, 	
the 	financial losses associated with	 investing in storage capacity 	grow larger	 as the 	total 	storage 	
capacity increases.	 In option 2, 	with a storage capacity of 193.5	 kWh	, the batteries are fully uti-	
lised for much of the year, as the excess	 electricity produced often exceeds	 the available storage 	
capacity. However, when the storage capacity increases	, the batteries are less frequently filled to 	
their full capacity	. As a result, the additional revenue generated	 from increased storage capacity	, 	
falls.	 	
4.4	 	Sensitivity analysis	 	
To 	check the robustness of 	the net present value	 we have performed sensitivity analysis. 	We have 	
investigated the following parameters:	 	
• 	The c	harging 	range	 of batteries	 	
• 	The discount rate	 	
• 	The price of 	purchased electricity 	 	
• 	The cost of batteries	 	
4.4.1	 	Changing the charging 	range	 of 	batteries	 	
So 	far,	 we 	have assumed that batteries are charged 	between 20 and 95	% for a 75 percentage 	
point interval. In sensitivity calculations we have ex	amined 80	%, 85	% etc	. all the way up to 100	%. 	
None of these change 	ranking of options and 	the conclusion that a battery by itself is unprofita	ble.	 	
4.4.2	 	Changing the 	discount rate	 	
So 	far,	 we have assumed a discount rate	 (also called a rate of return requirement)	 of 	10	%. In 	
sensitivity calculations we have experimented with 	a higher 	discount rate. 	A higher discount rate 	
does not change the ranking of 	options and the conclusion that a battery by itself is unprofitable.

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If we reduce the 	discount rate to 	5% a battery becomes 	profitable in 	the case of provider	 B. 	The 	
reason is that 	future income	 (cost reduction) from using a battery in this case 	gains 	higher 	weight, 	
compared to the investment cost	 of a battery. In the case of provider B	, the discount rate must 	
lowered all the way to 	1% for 	a battery to become profitable.	 	
4.4.3	 	Changing the 	price	 of purchased electricity	 	
Recall that 	a battery allows the airport to 	spend electricity from the battery instead of 	purchasing 	
electricity from the grid, and it allows to 	save electricity instead of selling to the grid. 	The annual 	
income depends on 	physical conditions such as the charging capacity, and on the price differential 	
between electricity purchased and sold. 	 	
If we increase the 	price of purchased electricity from 0.26 euro	/kWh to 0.51 euro/kWh 	it is prof-	
itable to install one battery according to provider A	 (Table 	4.7). This is close to a 	100	% increase. 	
An increase to 	0.66 euro/kWh makes a second battery profitable, and so on. 	Table 	4.7 also shows 	
that for the solar PV installation to be profitable a price of only 	0.12 euro/kWh is 	necessary, ac-	
cording to provider A. 	 	
Table 	4.7 	Electricity	 price sensitivity, Provider A	 	 	
0.12 €	 	0.51	 € 	0.54	 € 	0.66	 € 	0.86	 € 	2.14 	€ 	
Option 1	 	 - 	 1 276 577 	 	 1 388 093 	 	 1 775 754 	 	 2 407 581 	 	 6 580 391 	 	
Option 2	 	-114 024 	 	 1 276 577 	 	 1 398 054 	 	 1 820 340 	 	 2 508 602 	 	 7 054 127 	 	
Option 3	 	-229 209 	 	 1 267 323 	 	 1 398 054 	 	 1 852 509 	 	 2 593 201 	 	 7 484 991 	 	
Option 4	 	-347 406 	 	 1 234 097 	 	 1 372 250 	 	 1 852 509 	 	 2 635 256 	 	 7 804 793 	 	
Option 5	 	-468 578 	 	 1 177 174 	 	 1 320 940 	 	 1 820 709 	 	 2 635 256 	 	 8 014 807 	 	
Option 6	 	-578 395 	 	 1 088 661 	 	 1 234 289 	 	 1 740 527 	 	 2 565 618 	 	 8 014 807 	 	
Source: Vista Analyse	 	
Mov	ing to provider B a price of 0.36	-0.37	 euro/kWh is required for 	both one and two 	batter	ies	 to 	
be profitable	 (Table 	4.8). Th	is is 	close to a 	40	% increase in pric	e. Table 	4.8 also shows that for the 	
solar PV installation to be profitable a price of only 	0.07 	euro/kWh 	is necessary, according to 	
provider B. 	 	
Table 	4.8 	Electricity price sensitivity, Provider B	 	 	
0.07	 € 	0.36	 € 	0.37	 € 	0.45	 € 	0.58	 € 	1.49	 € 	
Option 1	 	 - 	 963 964 	 	 1 001 750 	 	 1 254 180 	 	 1 665 601 	 	 4 610 625 	 	
Option 2	 	-86 101 	€ 	 963 964 	 	 1 005 126 	 	 1 280 102 	 	 1 728 271 	 	 4 936 345 	 	
Option 3	 	-169	 228	 € 	 960 828 	 	 1 005 126 	 	 1 301 049 	 	 1 783 358 	 	 5 235 814 	 	
Option 4	 	-252 707 	€ 	 941 511 	 	 988 324 	 	 1 301 049 	 	 1 810 743 	 	 5 459 223 	 	
Option 5	 	-336 536 	€ 	 906 198 	 	 954 912 	 	 1 280 342 	 	 1 810 743 	 	 5 607 444 	 	
Option 6	 	-413 480 	€ 	 845 341 	 	 894 686 	 	 1 224 328 	 	 1 761 595 	 	 5 607 444 	 	
Source:	 	Vista Analyse

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4.4.4	 	Investment cost	 	
Higher income from batteries 	makes	 them profitable, but lower cost does the same. 	For one bat-	
tery to be profitable 	the investment cost 	must be 	no higher than 31	 612 euros for provider A and 	
41	 804 for provider B. That means that the investment cost would have to be reduced 	by 	58	 388	 	
euros for Provider A 	(65	% reduction	) and 	24 196	 euros	 for pro	vider B	 (35% reduction	).

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5	 	Next steps	 	
This pre	-feasibility study has shown that a 400 kWp solar 	PV installation 	at Satu Mare Interna-	
tional Airport 	is profitable	. The eventual profit 	of 	one or more	 batter	ies	 will depend on the 	cost	 	
of 	the installation and the price differential 	at the time of	 purchase. 	At current prices and costs 	
batteries do not seem to be profitable	. To put it differently, the installation is 	likely to be 	more 	
profi	table if 	it is 	a stand	-alone, without	 batteries. 	 	
The profitability of the PV installation is robust. That is, it 	remains even if	 the	 cost of the 	installa-	
tion	 is significantly higher	, or the volume of production is	 significantly lower	, or 	the 	rate of return 	
requirement is	 significantly higher	. To identify 	the 	cost of installation	, we have collected infor-	
mation from key suppliers. To identify 	the 	production 	potential,	 we have used the state	-of-the	-	
art software PVGIS. 	As a next step it 	will be	 worthwhile to compare our estimates with 	data from 	
nearby, 	existing solar PV installation	s, of which there is at least one	. A further next step is to detail 	
the project 	according to the requirements of 	relevant financial institutions, and relevant author-	
ities. 	 	
The 	robust profitability of a 400 kWp solar PV installation begs the question of whether 	the airport 	
should install 	higher capacity. 	As noted in chapter 	3.1	 the 	regulation 	pertaining to installations 	
above 400 kWp 	is more complicated than 	below 400 kWp. 	Still	, an installation of higher capacity 	
might be worthwhile to consider.	 	
The current plans for modernization 	and expansion of the 	airport do not include 	modernization 	
of the administrative building. 	Including the administrative building 	will complete the moderniza-	
tion, and 	the 	administrative bui	lding will surely be modernized at some point. 	Additional electric-	
ity production could be used for this purpose.

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport	 	
 	
Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	35	 	
 
Refer	e	nces	 	
Aecom. (2015). 	Romania General Transport Master Plan.	 Romanian Ministry of Transport.	 	
Air Transport Action Group. (2020). 	Aviation Benefits Beyond Borders.	 ATAG.	 	
Asociata de Dezvoltare Judetul Satu Mare. 	(2023, July 20). 	adijutetulsatumare.ro	. Retrieved from 	
Sources of Renewable Energy in Satu Mare 	County: Benefits and Local Impact: 	
https://adijudetulsatumare.ro/en/2023/07/20/sources	-of-renewable	-energy	-in-satu	-	
mare	-county	-benefits	-and	-local	-impact/	 	
Autoritatea Naţională de Reglementare în domeniul Energiei. (2023). 	Ghidul Prosumatorului.	 	
Retrieved from ANRE website: https://anre.ro/consumatori/energie	-electrica/cum	-	
devin	-prosumator/#fd151dd617ed97845	 	
Banila, N. (2022, September 20). 	SeeNews	. Retrieved from Romania to invest 88 mln euro in Satu 	
Mare airport upgrade 	-county council: https://seenews.com/news/romania	-to-invest	-	
88	-mln	-euro	-in-satu	-mare	-airport	-upgrade	-county	-council	-1216627	 	
Bog'Art. (2024, June 05). Retrieved from NEW TERMINAL AT SATU MARE INTERNATIONAL 	
AIRPORT 95% COMPLETED: https://www.bogart.ro/new	-terminal	-at-satu	-mare	-	
international	-airport	-95	-completed/	 	
EEA. (2024, October 31). 	European Environment Agency	. Retrieved from Greenhouse gas 	
emission intensity of electricity generation in Europe: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/greenhouse	-gas	-emission	-intensity	-	
of-1 	
EU. (2023). 	Directive 2023/2431 Document 32023L2413.	 Official Journal of the Euopean Union.	 	
European Comission. (2024). 	pvgis.com	. Retrieved from PVGIS 5.3 SOLAR PANEL CALCULATOR: 	
https://pvgis.com/	 	
IEA. (2024). 	iea.org	. Retrieved from Romania: https://www.iea.org/countries/romania/emissions	 	
Li, Z. W. (2017). 	Research and Analysis on Energy Consumption Features of Civil Airports.	 IOP 	
Conference.	 	
Ministerul Justitiei. (2012, July 10). 	Portal Legislativ	. Retrieved from LEGE nr. 123 din 10 iulie 2012: 	
https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/139677	 	
Ministerul Justitiei. (2022, March 2). 	Portal Legislativ	. Retrieved from ORDIN nr. 19 din 2 martie 	
2022.	 	
Ministerul Justitiei. (2022, December 28). 	Portal Legislativ	. Retrieved from ORDONANȚĂ DE 	
URGENȚĂ nr. 192 din 28 decembrie 2022: 
https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/263341	 	
Romanian Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests. (2020). 	Integrated National Energy and 	
Climate Plan 2021	-2030.	 Romanias Multilateral Assessment at Fourth IAR Cycle in 	
Glasgow, UK.

Renewable energy solutions for Satu Mare International Airport	 	
 	
Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	36	 	
 
Satu Mare County. (2022). 	Strategia de dezvoltare a județului Satu Mare pentru perioda 2021	-	
2030.	 	
Satu Mare International Airport. (2023). 	Plan de afaceri R.A Aeroportul Satu Mare.	 	
UN Environment Programme. (2023, September 06). 	unep.org	. Retrieved from Pollution Action 	
Note 	- Data you need to know: https://www.unep.org/interactives/air	-pollution	-note/	 	
UNFCCC. (2023). 	Un Climate Change	. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/documents/638361	 	
Vista Analyse. (2023). 	The Potential for Renewable Energy in 	Satu Mare County.	 Oslo: Vista 	
Analyse.

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Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	37	 	
 
Appendices	 	
 	
A	 	Estimated	 energy consumption	 	
In this appendix we present the full table of estimated energy 	consumption per month from 	2025 	
to 2035. 	The estimates serve as the foundation for 	Figure 	2.4 in the report.	 	
A.1	 	Estimated monthly energy consumption	 	
As described in	 chapter	 2.2.2	, the estimates for future energy consumption at the airport termi-	
nals are based on data provided by the Satu Mare International airport management	. Taking 	his-	
toric 	number of passengers (2019	 to 	2023	), estimated number of 	passengers (2025 to 2035)	 and 	
the floor are	a of the old terminal	 into consideration, 	we have	 conducted a regression analysis on 	
monthly electricity consumption	 of the airport (	2019 to 2023)	. 	
 
Table 	A.5.1 	Estimated monthly energy consumption	 (MWh)	 	
 	2025	 	2026	 	2027	 	2028	 	2029	 	2030	 	2031	 	2032	 	2033	 	2034	 	2035	 	
jan	 	94,14	 	94,49	 	94,88	 	95,60	 	96,25	 	97,00	 	97,87	 	98,86	 	100,00	 	101,31	 	102,82	 	
feb	 	75,41	 	75,72	 	76,08	 	76,73	 	77,32	 	78,00	 	78,78	 	79,68	 	80,72	 	81,91	 	83,27	 	
mar	 	72,21	 	72,52	 	72,86	 	73,50	 	74,08	 	74,74	 	75,50	 	76,38	 	77,39	 	78,55	 	79,88	 	
apr	 	61,02	 	61,36	 	61,75	 	62,48	 	63,13	 	63,88	 	64,74	 	65,73	 	66,87	 	68,18	 	69,69	 	
may	 	62,12	 	62,52	 	62,96	 	63,79	 	64,53	 	65,39	 	66,38	 	67,51	 	68,82	 	70,32	 	72,05	 	
jun	 	67,01	 	67,39	 	67,83	 	68,64	 	69,37	 	70,21	 	71,18	 	72,29	 	73,57	 	75,04	 	76,73	 	
jul 	72,52	 	73,05	 	73,65	 	74,77	 	75,77	 	76,93	 	78,26	 	79,79	 	81,55	 	83,58	 	85,91	 	
aug	 	73,46	 	74,07	 	74,75	 	76,02	 	77,16	 	78,47	 	79,98	 	81,72	 	83,72	 	86,01	 	88,65	 	
sep	 	69,44	 	69,96	 	70,54	 	71,63	 	72,61	 	73,73	 	75,03	 	76,51	 	78,22	 	80,19	 	82,45	 	
oct	 	68,42	 	68,82	 	69,27	 	70,10	 	70,85	 	71,71	 	72,70	 	73,83	 	75,14	 	76,65	 	78,38	 	
nov	 	86,34	 	86,67	 	87,03	 	87,72	 	88,34	 	89,05	 	89,86	 	90,80	 	91,88	 	93,12	 	94,55	 	
dec	 	89,51	 	89,85	 	90,22	 	90,92	 	91,56	 	92,28	 	93,12	 	94,08	 	95,18	 	96,45	 	97,91	 	
Year	 	891,59	 	896,42	 	901,82	 	911,90	 	920,97	 	931,40	 	943,40	 	957,20	 	973,07	 	991,32	 	1012,30

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Vista Analyse	 | 2025/01	 	38	 	
 
 	
 
 
 	
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